Neutralization of "Chaco eagle" (Buteogallus coronatus) serum on some activities of Bothrops spp. venoms.

Several species of reptiles and mammals have components in their sera that can neutralize toxic components present in snake venoms. In this manuscript, we studied the neutralizing capacity of Chaco eagle's (Buteogallus coronatus) serum. This South American bird of prey eats snakes as a regular part of its diet and has anatomical features that protect from snakes' bites. The neutralizing potency of the Chaco eagle's serum was tested on lethal, hemorrhagic, procoagulant, and phospholipase activities of the venom of "yarará grande" (Bothrops alternatus) and on phospholipase activity of "yarará ñata" (Bothrops ammodytoides) venom; both snakes are known to be the prey of Chaco eagle. Sera of crested caracara (Caracara plancus-a scavenger, omnivorous pan-American bird of prey), secretary bird (Saggitarius serpentarius-an omnivorous bird of prey from Africa that can include venomous snakes in its diet), common hen (Gallus gallus), rat (Rattus norvegicus), mouse (Mus musculus), horse (Equus caballus), and dog (Canis lupus familiaris) were also tested to compare the inhibitory capacity of neutralization. To test isologous and xenologous neutralization, sera from Bothrops alternatus and white-eared opossum (Didelphis albiventris), respectively, were used due to their known inhibitory activity on Bothrops venoms. As a control for the neutralization activity, antibothropic antivenom was used. Chaco eagle's serum neutralized hemorrhagic and phospholipasic activity and slightly neutralized the coagulation and the lethal activity of Bothrops spp. venom. The neutralizing capacity was present in the non-immunoglobulin fraction of the serum, which showed components of acidic characteristics and lower molecular weight than IgY, in correspondence with the characteristics of PLA2s and SVMPs inhibitors described in sera from some snakes and mammals. These studies showed that Chaco eagle's serum neutralizes all toxic activities tested at a higher level than sera from animal species in which inhibitors of snake venoms have not been described (p < 0.05), while it is lower or similar in neutralizing capacity to white-eared opossum and B. alternatus sera.

Control y prevención de los accidentes causados por Tityus trivittatus (Scorpiones: Buthidae) / Control and prevention of accidents caused by Tityus trivittatus (Scorpiones: Buthidae)

Resumen Las picaduras por alacranes pueden producir cuadros de intoxicación aguda y conducir a la muerte por falla cardíaca y distrés respiratorio, siendo la población pediátrica la de mayor riesgo, tanto en Argentina como en el resto del mundo. Muchasde las especies de escorpiones en el mundo son sinantrópicas, y en Argentina, las que se han relacionado con muertes, comoTityus trivittatus y Tityus confluens, poseen esas características. La sinantropía, aumenta la posibilidad de contacto humano -escorpión y por lo tanto la ocurrencia de accidentes, por lo que las medidas de prevención en este caso, deben tomarse no soloconductualmente sino ambientalmente para evitar ese contacto. Las características biológicas de los escorpiones del géneroTityus dificultan las labores de prevención. Muchas son las herramientas para disminuir el contacto con los escorpiones y de esamanera prevenir los accidentes como los controles químicos, biológicos y ambientales, así como la búsqueda y eliminación deescorpiones. Sin embargo, no todas son efectivas si no son aplicadas racionalmente y si no son combinadas. En ocasiones lamala planificación o uso de las diferentes medidas para el combate de escorpiones pueden ser contraproducentes y no solo serinefectivas sino aumentar la probabilidad de ocurrencia de accidentes. En esta revisión se exponen los diferentes métodos deprevención del escorpionismo, con especial referencia a las especies de Tityus de Argentina.

Abstract Scorpion stings may produce acute envenoming and lead to death from heart failure and respiratory distress, being the pediatric population that with the highest risk of severe envenomation and death, in Argentina as in the rest of the world. Manyof the scorpion species in the world are synanthropic, including Tityus trivittatus and Tityus confluens, which are responsible forhuman deaths in Argentina. Synanthropy increases the possibility of human-scorpion contact and therefore the occurrence ofaccidents, so preventive measures to avoid the contact must be taken not only behaviorally but environmentally. The biologi-cal characteristics of scorpions of the genus Tityus make prevention of the contact with humans rather difficult. There are manychemical, biological and environmental tools to reduce the possibility of contact between humans and scorpions. However, notall these measures are effective if they are not rationally applied and if these are not combined. Sometimes the poor planningor use of different measures to control scorpions' population can be counterproductive and not only ineffective, increasing theprobability of accidents. In this review, we discuss the different methods of prevention and combat of scorpionism, with specialreference to the prevention of accidents with Tityus species from Argentina.

Toxicological study of bee venom (Apis mellifera mellifera) from different regions of the province of Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Samples of Apis mellifera mellifera venom from different hives in two regions of the Buenos Aires province and its pool were analyzed for their lethal potency, myotoxic, defibrinogenating, hemolytic and inflammatory-edematizing activity and for the histological alterations they produce in the heart, lungs, kidneys, skeletal muscle and liver of mice. In vitro studies focused on the venom's hemolytic activity in different systems and species (horse, man, sheep and rabbit), the cytotoxicity in cellular lines, and on the proteolytic and coagulant activity in plasma and fibrinogen. Hemolytic activity, either observed in vitro or in vivo, showed similar toxicity levels for all samples. Erythrocytes of different species varied in their sensitivity to the venom pool, equines being the most sensitive and sheep the most resistant to direct hemolytic action. Local and systemic myotoxicity was evidenced by either the elevation of serum creatine kinase and/or histopathological lesions, observed in different muscles. All samples caused significant pathological alterations; pulmonary, cardiac, renal and skeletal muscle lesions were substantive and can be related to the pathophysiological mechanisms of envenomation. The venoms from different apiaries and regions of the Buenos Aires province showed very similar toxicological characteristics. These results suggest that severity of envenomation in case of a swarming could therefore be more related to the number of bees than to the differential toxicity of the venom from different regions of the province. This is the first study on the toxicity and toxicological characteristics of Apis mellifera venom in Argentina.

Expansión de la distribución de escorpiones del género Tityus C. L. Koch 1836 en Argentina: Implicancias sanitarias / Expansion of the distribution of scorpions of the genus Tityus C. L. Koch 1836 in Argentina: Implications in public health

Se ha observado la presencia de especies de Tityus en diferentes regiones del país, en las cuales su presencia no había sido comunicada previamente: 1- Tityus bahiensis en las provincias de Entre Ríos y Buenos Aires, en esta última en la localidad de Lanús y en San Clemente del Tuyú, y 2- Tityus confluens en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (CABA) y en la provincia de Buenos Aires en las localidades de Pilar, La Plata, Mar del Plata y Bahía Blanca. Estos hallazgos modifican el mapa de la distribución de escorpiones de importancia sanitaria en Argentina por lo que ante la picadura de escorpiones deben considerarse estos nuevos hallazgos. Esto es especialmente importante en el ámbito de la CABA y la provincia de Buenos Aires, en donde la enorme mayoría de los accidentes por escorpiones han sido causados por T. trivittatus y en donde ahora, al menos en algunas de sus regiones se pueden encontrar T. confluens y T. bahiensis. Se discuten posibles razones de esta nueva distribución así como la ocurrencia de accidentes graves en zonas donde no ocurrían históricamente y de sus posibles causas. En base a los casos graves producidos en los últimos tiempos y a este nuevo mapa de distribución, se hace énfasis en la necesidad de capacitación al personal de salud en general y de los médicos de guardia y terapistas en particular, para tratar adecuadamente los accidentes por escorpiones.

Several species of Tityus have been described in regions of Argentina where their presence had not been previously described. These are: 1- Tityus bahiensis in the provinces of Entre Ríos and Buenos Aires (in the localities of Lanús and San Clemente del Tuyú), and 2- Tityus confluens in the city of Buenos Aires and in the province of Buenos Aires in the localities of Pilar, La Plata, Mar del Plata and Bahía Blanca. These findings modify the distribution map of scorpions of sanitary importance in Argentina, reason for which this new distribution must be considered when facing a scorpion sting. This is especially important in the city of Buenos Aires and the province of Buenos Aires, where most of the accidents by scorpions are caused by Tityus trivittatus, and where at least in some of their regions, T. confluens or T. bahiensis can be found at present. The possible reasons of this new distribution, as well as the possible causes for the occurrence of severe envenomations in regions where these were not observed historically, are discussed. Based on the severe envenomations observed and on this new distribution map, emphasis is placed on the need to capacitate health personnel in general and intensivists or critical care physicians in particular to adequately treat scorpion accidents.

[Distribution of findings of scorpions in Buenos Aires city in the period 2001-2012 and their sanitary implications]. / Distribución de los hallazgos de escorpiones en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires en el período 2001-2012 y sus implicancias sanitarias.

Scorpion stings and their associated mortality increased in the last years in Argentina, with a cumulative record of 73,617 cases and 30 deaths during the period 2001-2012, occurring almost all the deaths in pediatric patients. However, deaths due to severe envenoming by scorpion stings have not been recorded in Buenos Aires city and suburban regions, although the presence of scorpions in this city has been increasingly reported. We studied the temporal and geographical distribution of Tityus trivittatus findings in Buenos Aires city from the database of the Research and Development Area from the National Institute for Production of Biologics of the National Ministry of Health during the period 10/01/2001 to 31/12/2012 in order to correlate these findings with the distribution of health centers in the city. In this period 385 consults with identification of scorpions were recorded. Annual records showed a growing trend. Georeferenced data showed that findings appeared to increase in the surroundings of metro and train stations, mainly at the east of the city with expansion to the west. Although Toxicology services are geographically related to the zones with higher density of finding of scorpions, the accessibility to the centers with antivenom may hinder its application in the recommended time; some measures to avoid possible delays in the application of the treatment are suggested.

En Argentina, las picaduras de alacrán (escorpión) y la mortalidad asociada aumentaron en los últimos años. Durante el período 20012012, se registraron 73 617 accidentes y 30 óbitos, casi todos en pacientes pediátricos. A diferencia de otras latitudes del país, en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires y su Conurbano, no se registraron envenenamientos graves o muertes por estos arácnidos. El objetivo fue describir la distribución temporal y geográfica de los hallazgos de Tityus trivittatus en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires desde el 10/1/2001 al 31/12/2012 y su relación con la distribución de los centros asistenciales. Hubo 385 consultas con identificación de escorpiones. Los registros anuales mostraron una tendencia creciente. El georreferenciamiento mostró áreas con mayor frecuencia de hallazgos y densidad en proximidades de ciertas estaciones de ferrocarril y subterráneos, principalmente al este de la ciudad con expansión hacia el oeste. Si bien los centros con servicios de Toxicología coinciden geográficamente con estas zonas, la accesibilidad a centros que disponen del antiveneno puede dificultar su aplicación en el tiempo recomendado. Se sugieren medidas para prevenir demoras en los tratamientos.

Notes of cases of aggression and ophiophagy by Bothops jararacussu (Lacerda 1884) in captivity / Nota de casos de agresión y ofiofagia por Bothrops jararacussu (Lacerda 1884) en cautividad

Bothrops jararacussu is one of the most venomous snakes of medical importance in South America, mainly due to the toxicity of their venom and the large amount of that which can be injected in a single bite. The venom of this snake is required for the production, process and control of the therapeutic antivenoms used to treat Bothrops envenomation, so it is one of the Bothrops species common in Serpentariums located in Argentina and Brazil dedicated to the production of antivenoms. We reported two cases of ophiophagy due captive adult B. jararacussu females on Bothrops and Philodryas snakes and the aggression of specimens of this species is also described. Despite well known resistance to homologous venom of Bothrops species, the bite of this specie on other snakes of the same species and also other Bothrops snakes, produce serious injuries. These observations are important for professionals whom must maintain in captivity these species of snakes by educational or venom production purposes.

Bothrops jararacussu es una de las serpientes venenosas de mayor importancia médica en Sudamérica, tanto por la toxicidad de su veneno como por la cantidad de veneno que puede inyectar. Su veneno es necesario para el proceso de producción y control del antiveneno terapéutico que se usa para tratar el envenenamiento por su mordedura, por eso es una de las especies de Bothrops comunes en los serpentarios de Argentina y Brasil dedicados a la producción de antivenenos. Por otro lado, dada la peligrosidad de su mordedura, estas serpientes suelen encontrarse en diferentes serpentarios educativos en los mismos países. En este trabajo describimos la ofiofagia de ejemplares hembras adultas de esta especie sobre ejemplares de Bothrops y Philodryas. También es descripta la agresión de ejemplares de esta especie a otros ejemplares conespecíficos y de otras especies de Bothrops. A pesar de la conocida resistencia a los venenos homólogos que poseen los ofidios, la inoculación del veneno de esta especie a otros ejemplares de la misma especie como a otras Bothrops produce lesiones de consideración. Estas observaciones son de importancia para quienes deban mantener ejemplares de esta especie en cautividad por motivos educativos o de producción de veneno.

[The toxicity of venom of Bothrops (Rhinocerophris) alternatus in different areas of Cordoba State in Argentina]. / Caracterización tóxica del veneno de Bothrops (Rhinocerophis) alternatus de diferentes regiones de la provincia de Córdoba (Argentina).

Snake venoms can show biochemical and toxicological variability even in specimens from the same specie. The geographical localization of the snakes is one of the factors that can influence those variations. By these reasons the venom from specimens of Bothrops (Rhinocerophis) alternatus ("crucera", "yararágrande"), one of the snakes of highest medical importance in Argentina, from three different regions of Córdoba was studied. Lehtal potency, hemorrhagic, coagulant on plasma and thrombin like activities as well as the electrophoretic patterns of venom from snakes of Calamuchita, Traslasierras and the East of the province were determined. The venom from the snakes of the three regions showed the characteristic activities of the venom of the majority of Bothrops, causing hemorrhage, hemostatic disturbances acting on plasma or directly on fibrinogen with a "thrombin like activity". The different samples were very similar regarding their biochemical characteristics and toxic potencies at difference of previous observations on venoms from the same specie in different regions of other provinces fro Argentina. Bivalent antivenom, the one used by the Provincial Ministry of Health to treat the bothropic accidents, neutralized in all the cases the toxic activities of the venom in very similar range of neutralizing potency.

Los venenos serpientes pueden presentar variabilidad en sus características bioquímicas y toxicológicas aún en ejemplares de una misma especie. La localización geográfica de los ejemplares es uno de los factores que puede influenciar estas variaciones. Por este motivo se estudió el veneno de ejemplares Bothrops (Rhinocerophis) alternatus ("crucera", "yarará grande"), una de las serpientes de mayor importancia médica de Argentina, de tres regiones diferentes de Córdoba. Se estudió la potencia letal, la actividad hemorrágica, coagulante en plasma y trombina símil y el patrón electroforético de ejemplares de Calamuchita, Traslasierras y del Este de la provincia. El veneno de las serpientes de las tres regiones presentó las actividades características de los venenos de la mayoría de las Bothrops, causando hemorragias y alteraciones en el sistema hemostático, afectando tanto al plasma como actuando directamente sobre el fibrinógeno mediante una actividad trombina símil. Las distintas muestras fueron muy similares en cuanto a sus características bioquímicas ya sus potencias tóxicas, a diferencia de lo observado con veneno de ejemplaresB. alternatusde distintas regiones de otras provincias de la Argentina. El antiveneno Bivalente utilizado por el Ministerio de Salud de Córdoba para tratar los accidentes por Bothrops neutralizó, en todos los casos las actividades tóxicas ensayadas en rangos de potencias neutralizantes muy similares.

Caracterización tóxica del veneno de Bothrops (Rhinocerophis) alternatus de diferentes regiones de la provincia de Córdoba (Argentina) / [The toxicity of venom of Bothrops (Rhinocerophris) alternatus in different areas of Cordoba State in Argentina].

Snake venoms can show biochemical and toxicological variability even in specimens from the same specie. The geographical localization of the snakes is one of the factors that can influence those variations. By these reasons the venom from specimens of Bothrops (Rhinocerophis) alternatus ("crucera", "yararágrande"), one of the snakes of highest medical importance in Argentina, from three different regions of Córdoba was studied. Lehtal potency, hemorrhagic, coagulant on plasma and thrombin like activities as well as the electrophoretic patterns of venom from snakes of Calamuchita, Traslasierras and the East of the province were determined. The venom from the snakes of the three regions showed the characteristic activities of the venom of the majority of Bothrops, causing hemorrhage, hemostatic disturbances acting on plasma or directly on fibrinogen with a "thrombin like activity". The different samples were very similar regarding their biochemical characteristics and toxic potencies at difference of previous observations on venoms from the same specie in different regions of other provinces fro Argentina. Bivalent antivenom, the one used by the Provincial Ministry of Health to treat the bothropic accidents, neutralized in all the cases the toxic activities of the venom in very similar range of neutralizing potency.

Caracterización tóxica del veneno de Bothrops (Rhinocerophis) alternatus de diferentes regiones de la provincia de Córdoba (Argentina). / [The toxicity of venom of Bothrops (Rhinocerophris) alternatus in different areas of Cordoba State in Argentina].

Snake venoms can show biochemical and toxicological variability even in specimens from the same specie. The geographical localization of the snakes is one of the factors that can influence those variations. By these reasons the venom from specimens of Bothrops (Rhinocerophis) alternatus ("crucera", "yararágrande"), one of the snakes of highest medical importance in Argentina, from three different regions of Córdoba was studied. Lehtal potency, hemorrhagic, coagulant on plasma and thrombin like activities as well as the electrophoretic patterns of venom from snakes of Calamuchita, Traslasierras and the East of the province were determined. The venom from the snakes of the three regions showed the characteristic activities of the venom of the majority of Bothrops, causing hemorrhage, hemostatic disturbances acting on plasma or directly on fibrinogen with a "thrombin like activity". The different samples were very similar regarding their biochemical characteristics and toxic potencies at difference of previous observations on venoms from the same specie in different regions of other provinces fro Argentina. Bivalent antivenom, the one used by the Provincial Ministry of Health to treat the bothropic accidents, neutralized in all the cases the toxic activities of the venom in very similar range of neutralizing potency.

Envenenamiento de Chelydra serpentina (Reptilia: Testudines) por Tityus trivittatus (Scorpionida: Buthidae) / Envenomation of Chelydra serpentina (Reptilia: Testudines) by Tityus trivittatus (Scorpionida: Buthidae)

Se describe el caso de un ejemplar de tortuga mordedora (Chelydra serpentina) que fue hallada con los miembros tetanizados en extensión, midriasis y poca respuesta a estímulos externos, en cuyo recinto se encontró un ejemplar de escorpión Tityus trivittatus. Ante el claro cuadro de envenenamiento, se trató al quelonio con antiveneno escorpiónico específico retornando a un estado de relajación muscular a las seis horas y encontrándoselo totalmente normal a las 24 horas sin mostrar secuelas posteriores. Este es el primer comunicado sobre el envenenamiento de quelonios por escorpiones. Se discuten algunos aspectos de este envenenamiento escorpiónico y su tratamiento con antiveneno específico.

We report the case of a snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) found tetanized, with the limbs in extension, mydriasis and poor response to external stimuli, in whose terrarium was found a Tityus trivittatus scorpion. Based on the clear clinical picture of envenoming, the turtle was treated with a specific scorpion antivenin, returning to a state of muscle relaxation after six hours of treatment and it was found totally normal at 24 hours, without envenoming sequelae. This is the first report on turtle envenomation by scorpion. The scorpion envenomation in reptiles and the treatment with specific antivenom is discussed.

A study on the venom of Bothrops alternatus Duméril, Bibron and Duméril, from different regions of Argentina.

We report a comparison of toxic and enzymatic activities of Bothrops alternatus venoms collected from specimens of different regions of Argentina with a pool of these same venoms. We determined lethal, hemorrhagic and pro-coagulant (plasma and fibrinogen) doses, as well as indirect hemolysis, hydrolysis of gelatin and fibrinogen. The electrophoretic pattern of the venoms and that of fibrinogen incubated with each of the venoms was studied by SDS-PAGE. The toxic activities were consistent with those reported for these venoms but with noticeable differences between samples which do not seem related to geographical or climatic characteristics. In some cases the pooled venom showed values close to the individual samples, but it was not representative since at least the half of the venoms (4/9) exhibited very different patterns of toxicity. The potency of some activities in the individual venoms ranged from much higher to much lower than those determined in the pooled venom (0.1 to 3 fold). Not all venoms exhibited thrombin-like activity but all hydrolyzed alpha and beta chains of fibrinogen; however, degradation patterns were not always similar. Variation in activities and toxicities do not seem to be related to geographical or climatic characteristics.